📋 Korean Law Insight | Construction & Real Estate Law
By Attorney NOH UJIN | HANBYOL LAW LLC, Seoul
Korean Construction Disputes and Contractor Liability: A Complete Legal Guide for Foreign Parties
South Korea is home to some of the world's most active construction markets. From large-scale infrastructure projects and industrial facilities to commercial real estate developments and residential complexes, Korean construction activity is substantial and growing. For foreign investors, developers, project owners, and contractors operating in Korea, understanding the legal framework governing construction disputes and contractor liability is essential to protecting your interests.
This guide provides a comprehensive overview of Korean construction law, the types of disputes that commonly arise, the legal remedies available, and the steps foreign parties should take to manage risk effectively in Korean construction projects.
Overview of Korean Construction Law
Korean construction law is primarily governed by the Framework Act on the Construction Industry (건설산업기본법) and the Housing Act (주택법), supplemented by the Civil Act (민법) for general contract principles and liability. The Architecture Act (건축법) regulates building standards and permits, while the Subcontracting Act (하도급법) provides important protections in subcontracting relationships.
Key regulatory bodies include the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT), which oversees construction licensing, standards, and safety. All construction contractors in Korea must be registered with MOLIT and must maintain minimum capital requirements and technical personnel as a condition of their license.
Types of Construction Contracts in Korea
Construction projects in Korea typically involve one of three main contract types:
- Fixed-price (lump-sum) contracts: The contractor agrees to complete the work for a fixed price regardless of actual cost overruns. This is the most common contract type for well-defined scopes of work.
- Unit-price contracts: Payment is calculated based on unit rates applied to actual quantities of work completed. Commonly used for civil engineering projects where quantities are uncertain.
- Cost-plus contracts: The owner pays actual costs plus an agreed fee or percentage. Used for projects with highly uncertain scope or fast-tracked timelines.
Foreign parties should note that Korean construction contracts often incorporate standard forms issued by public agencies. The General Conditions of Contract for Construction Works promulgated by the Ministry of Strategy and Finance sets out default terms for public contracts, while private contracts are generally subject to free negotiation.
Common Construction Disputes in Korea
The most frequently litigated construction disputes in Korea involve:
1. Defect Claims
Under Korean law, the Civil Act Article 667 imposes a statutory warranty obligation on contractors for defects in completed work. For residential buildings, this warranty period is extended by the Housing Act to up to 10 years for structural defects. Foreign project owners must be aware that Korean courts have broadly interpreted "defect" to include not only physical deficiencies but also shortcomings in function, safety, and compliance with building codes.
2. Delay Claims
Delays are a persistent source of disputes in Korean construction. Liquidated damages clauses are commonly included in Korean construction contracts, and courts will generally enforce them as long as the amount is not deemed a penalty (위약벌) rather than a genuine pre-estimate of damages. Force majeure clauses must be carefully drafted to cover events like pandemic disruptions, extreme weather, and supply chain failures.
3. Variation and Change Order Disputes
Disputes frequently arise when owners direct additional work without issuing formal written change orders, then refuse payment. Korean courts have recognized the equitable principle of unjust enrichment (부당이득) to allow contractors to recover for undirected variations in certain circumstances, but formal change order procedures should always be followed.
4. Payment Disputes
Late payment and non-payment are significant issues in Korean construction, particularly in the subcontractor chain. The Subcontracting Act (하도급법) imposes strict obligations on prime contractors to pay subcontractors promptly and prohibits unfair subcontracting practices. Violations can trigger administrative sanctions as well as civil claims.
5. Safety Accidents and Criminal Liability
Korea has some of the most stringent construction safety regulations in Asia. The Serious Disaster Punishment Act (중대재해처벌법), enacted in January 2022, imposes criminal liability on business owners and senior managers (including foreign executives) for fatal workplace accidents where safety management systems are inadequate. Penalties include imprisonment of up to one year for a first offense. Foreign investors and management personnel must take this law seriously.
Contractor Liability Under Korean Law
Korean law imposes various forms of liability on contractors:
Contractual Liability
Contractors are liable for breach of contract under standard contractual principles. Korean courts apply the principle of fault-based liability, requiring proof of breach, causation, and damages. Limitation of liability clauses are generally enforceable, but courts may reduce or disregard them if they are excessively favorable to the stronger party.
Statutory Defect Warranty
As noted above, contractors bear a non-waivable statutory warranty for construction defects. For residential buildings, the warranty periods are prescribed by the Housing Act and range from 2 years (for interior finishes) to 10 years (for structural elements). For non-residential construction, the Civil Act provides a minimum 5-year warranty for buildings made of concrete, stone, or metal.
Tort Liability
Contractors may also be liable in tort for damages caused by negligence in construction. Third parties injured by construction activities (including neighboring property owners) may bring tort claims under Civil Act Article 750.
Joint and Several Liability
Under the Framework Act on the Construction Industry, prime contractors and subcontractors can be jointly and severally liable to project owners for defects in subcontracted work in certain circumstances. This means foreign project owners may have direct claims against subcontractors even without a direct contractual relationship.
Dispute Resolution Options
Construction disputes in Korea can be resolved through several mechanisms:
Litigation
Korean courts handle a large volume of construction disputes. The Seoul Central District Court and other major district courts have specialized divisions for complex construction cases. Litigation timelines in Korea typically range from 1 to 3 years at first instance, with appeals adding additional time.
Arbitration
The Korean Commercial Arbitration Board (KCAB) administers construction arbitration under its International Arbitration Rules. For international construction contracts, KCAB arbitration or ICC arbitration seated in Seoul is commonly preferred. Arbitration awards are enforceable under the New York Convention in over 170 countries.
Mediation and Conciliation
The Construction Dispute Mediation Committee (건설분쟁조정위원회) under MOLIT provides a specialized mediation service for construction disputes. Mediation is faster and less costly than litigation, and the committee has technical experts who can evaluate construction quality issues.
Risk Management for Foreign Parties
Foreign project owners and contractors operating in Korea should take the following steps to manage construction risk:
- Conduct thorough contractor due diligence: Verify the contractor's MOLIT registration, financial condition, track record, and bonding capacity before contract award.
- Use well-drafted contracts: Korean standard form contracts may not adequately protect foreign parties. Consider incorporating international standard terms (FIDIC) adapted for Korean law requirements.
- Establish clear change order procedures: Require all instructions for additional work to be in writing and signed by authorized representatives before work commences.
- Include robust dispute resolution clauses: Specify the governing law (Korean law), the dispute resolution mechanism (arbitration preferred for foreign parties), and the seat and language of arbitration.
- Obtain performance bonds and insurance: Require performance bonds, advance payment bonds, and adequate construction all-risk insurance. Verify that insurance policies are placed with licensed Korean insurers.
- Monitor safety compliance: Under the Serious Disaster Punishment Act, foreign investors and management with operational control must ensure that proper safety management systems are in place.
- Engage local legal counsel early: Korean construction law has many jurisdiction-specific requirements. Early engagement of Korean legal counsel can prevent costly disputes.
Key Legal Timeline for Defect Claims
| Building Type | Defect Category | Warranty Period |
|---|
| Residential Buildings | Structural (foundations, frame) | 10 years |
| Residential Buildings | Waterproofing, windows, doors | 5 years |
| Residential Buildings | Interior finishes, electrical, plumbing | 2 years |
| Non-Residential (concrete/steel) | All structural and major defects | 5 years (Civil Act) |
| Non-Residential (wood/other) | All defects | 1 year (Civil Act) |
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Q1: Can a foreign company be a registered construction contractor in Korea?
Yes, foreign companies can apply for construction contractor registration in Korea under the Framework Act on the Construction Industry. However, registration requires meeting minimum capital, technical personnel, and equipment requirements, and the process can be complex. Many foreign construction companies instead enter the Korean market through joint ventures with licensed Korean contractors.
Q2: What is the typical process for pursuing a defect claim in Korea?
First, formally notify the contractor of the defects in writing, specifying the nature and location of each defect and requesting repair within a reasonable timeframe (typically 30–60 days). If the contractor fails to repair, you may engage an independent inspector to document the defects and obtain repair cost estimates. You can then file a claim with the Construction Dispute Mediation Committee for mediation, or proceed to litigation or arbitration. A formal defect inspection report is essential evidence in any construction dispute.
Q3: How does the Serious Disaster Punishment Act affect foreign investors in Korean construction?
The Act applies to any person with substantial management authority over the business or workplace where a serious accident (death or serious injury) occurs. This can include foreign parent company executives who exercise operational control over Korean construction sites. Foreign investors should ensure they have adequate legal distance from day-to-day site operations and that their Korean subsidiaries or joint venture partners have robust safety management systems.
Q4: Are FIDIC contracts recognized and enforceable in Korea?
Yes, FIDIC (International Federation of Consulting Engineers) contracts are recognized and used in Korea, particularly for large infrastructure and international projects. Korean courts will generally enforce FIDIC contract terms as written, subject to Korean mandatory law provisions. The FIDIC Engineer's determination and adjudication procedures are effective tools for managing disputes on Korean projects.
Q5: What remedies are available if a contractor abandons a project in Korea?
If a contractor abandons a project, the project owner may: (1) terminate the contract for breach and recover damages, including the cost of completion by another contractor; (2) call on any performance bond; (3) seek emergency injunctive relief if required; and (4) pursue the contractor's directors personally in cases of fraudulent conduct. Korean courts can issue provisional attachment orders to preserve contractor assets while litigation proceeds.
Q6: How long does construction litigation typically take in Korean courts?
First-instance proceedings in Korean district courts typically take 12–24 months for straightforward cases and 2–4 years for complex construction disputes requiring expert evidence. Appeals to the High Court add another 6–18 months. KCAB arbitration typically concludes in 12–18 months. For urgent matters, interim measures (provisional attachments, injunctions) can be obtained within days.
Q7: Is mediation mandatory before litigation for construction disputes in Korea?
Mediation is not generally mandatory before litigation for private construction contracts. However, for certain disputes under the Subcontracting Act, administrative mediation through the Korea Fair Trade Commission may be required or strongly encouraged. Including a tiered dispute resolution clause (requiring mediation before arbitration or litigation) in construction contracts is recommended as good practice.
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📋 韩国法律洞察 | 建设与房地产法
作者：律师 NOH UJIN | HANBYOL LAW LLC，首尔
韩国建设纠纷与承包商责任：外方当事人完整法律指南
韩国拥有全球最活跃的建设市场之一。从大型基础设施项目、工业设施到商业地产开发和住宅综合体，韩国建筑活动规模庞大且持续增长。对于在韩国经营的外国投资者、开发商、项目业主和承包商而言，了解管理建设纠纷和承包商责任的法律框架对于保护自身利益至关重要。
韩国建设法律概述
韩国建设法律主要由《建设产业基本法》和《住宅法》管辖，辅以《民法》的一般合同原则及责任规定。《建筑法》规范建筑标准和许可，《下包法》为分包关系提供重要保护。
所有在韩国的建设承包商必须在国土交通部（MOLIT）注册，并须维持最低资本要求和技术人员配置。
韩国建设合同类型
- 固定价格（一次性总价）合同：承包商同意以固定价格完成工程，无论实际成本是否超支。
- 单价合同：按实际完成工程量乘以单价计算报酬，常用于工程量不确定的土木工程项目。
- 成本加酬金合同：业主支付实际成本加上约定费用或比例，用于范围高度不确定的项目。
常见建设纠纷
1. 缺陷索赔
根据《民法》第667条，承包商对已完工工程的缺陷负有法定担保义务。对于住宅建筑，《住宅法》将结构缺陷的担保期延长至10年。
2. 延误索赔
延误是韩国建设纠纷的持续来源。违约金条款在韩国建设合同中普遍存在，只要金额不被认定为惩罚性违约金，法院通常予以执行。
3. 变更令纠纷
业主在未签发正式书面变更令的情况下指示额外工作，然后拒绝付款，此类纠纷频繁发生。韩国法院在某些情况下承认不当得利原则，允许承包商就无指令变更追偿。
4. 付款纠纷
《下包法》对总包商及时支付分包商款项施加严格义务，禁止不公平分包行为，违规者面临行政处罚及民事索赔。
5. 安全事故与刑事责任
《重大灾害处罚法》（2022年1月生效）对因安全管理体系不健全而发生致死工伤事故的企业主和高管（包括外籍高管）追究刑事责任，首次违法最高可判处一年有期徒刑。
承包商责任
韩国法律对承包商施加合同责任、法定缺陷担保责任、侵权责任以及连带责任。承包商和分包商在某些情况下可对项目业主就分包工程缺陷承担连带责任。
纠纷解决途径
- 诉讼：韩国法院处理大量建设纠纷，一审通常需1至3年。
- 仲裁：韩国商事仲裁院（KCAB）管理建设仲裁，仲裁裁决可在170余个国家依据《纽约公约》执行。
- 调解：国土交通部下设建设纠纷调解委员会，提供专业调解服务，速度更快、成本更低。
常见问题解答（FAQ）
问1：外国公司可以在韩国注册为建设承包商吗？
可以，但需满足最低资本、技术人员和设备要求。许多外国建设公司选择通过与持牌韩国承包商成立合资公司的方式进入韩国市场。
问2：在韩国提出缺陷索赔的典型流程是什么？
首先以书面形式正式通知承包商缺陷情况，要求在合理期限内（通常30-60天）修复。如承包商未予修复，可委托独立检查员记录缺陷并获取修复费用估算。然后可向建设纠纷调解委员会申请调解，或提起诉讼或仲裁。
问3：《重大灾害处罚法》如何影响韩国建设领域的外国投资者？
该法适用于对发生重大事故的企业或工作场所拥有实质管理权限的人员，可能包括对韩国建设工地行使运营控制权的外国母公司高管。
问4：FIDIC合同在韩国是否被承认并可执行？
是的，FIDIC合同在韩国被承认并使用，特别是在大型基础设施和国际项目中，韩国法院通常按照合同条款执行，但须遵守韩国强制性法律规定。
问5：承包商弃工后有哪些救济措施？
项目业主可终止合同并追偿损失（包括其他承包商的完工费用）、要求履约保函兑付、申请紧急禁令，以及在欺诈情形下追究承包商董事的个人责任。
问6：韩国建设诉讼通常需要多长时间？
一审程序通常需要1至3年，涉及专家证据的复杂案件可能需要2至4年。KCAB仲裁通常在12至18个月内结束。
问7：在韩国，建设纠纷提起诉讼前是否必须先进行调解？
私人建设合同通常不要求强制调解。但《下包法》下的某些纠纷可能需要或强烈建议通过公平贸易委员会进行行政调解。建议在合同中纳入分级纠纷解决条款。
📌 官方参考资料
📚 相关文章
📋 韓国法律インサイト | 建設・不動産法
著者：弁護士 NOH UJIN | HANBYOL LAW LLC、ソウル
韓国の建設紛争と請負業者の責任：外国当事者のための完全法律ガイド
韓国は世界で最も活発な建設市場の一つです。大規模インフラプロジェクト、工業施設、商業用不動産開発から住宅複合施設まで、韓国の建設活動は大規模かつ拡大を続けています。韓国で事業を展開する外国投資家、デベロッパー、プロジェクトオーナー、請負業者にとって、建設紛争と請負業者責任を規定する法的枠組みを理解することは、利益を保護する上で不可欠です。
韓国建設法の概要
韓国の建設法は主に「建設産業基本法」と「住宅法」によって規律され、一般的な契約原則と責任については「民法」が補完します。「建築法」は建築基準と許可を規制し、「下請法」は下請関係における重要な保護を提供します。
韓国で建設請負業を営む全ての事業者は国土交通部（MOLIT）に登録し、最低資本要件および技術者配置要件を満たす必要があります。
韓国の建設契約の種類
- 固定価格（一括請負）契約：実際のコスト超過に関わらず、請負業者は固定価格で工事完成を約束します。
- 単価契約：実際の完成工事量に単価を乗じて報酬を算定します。工事量が不確定な土木工事プロジェクトに多用されます。
- 実費精算契約：発注者が実際のコストに合意された報酬またはパーセンテージを加算して支払います。
一般的な建設紛争
1. 欠陥クレーム
民法第667条により、請負業者は完成工事の欠陥について法定保証義務を負います。住宅建築については、住宅法により構造欠陥の保証期間が10年に延長されています。
2. 遅延クレーム
遅延は韓国の建設紛争における持続的な原因です。違約金条款は韓国建設契約に広く見られ、金額が懲罰的違約金とみなされない限り、裁判所は一般的に執行します。
3. 変更指示紛争
発注者が正式な書面による変更指示書なしに追加工事を指示し、その後支払いを拒否するケースが頻発します。韓国裁判所は一定の状況下で不当利得の原則を認めています。
4. 支払紛争
下請法は元請業者に対し下請業者への迅速な支払いを義務付け、不公正な下請行為を禁止しています。違反した場合は行政制裁および民事クレームが生じます。
5. 安全事故と刑事責任
「重大災害処罰法」（2022年1月施行）は、安全管理体制が不十分な状態で致死的な労働災害が発生した場合、企業主および経営幹部（外国人役員を含む）に刑事責任を課します。初回違反で最長1年の懲役が科される可能性があります。
紛争解決の選択肢
- 訴訟：韓国の裁判所は多数の建設紛争を処理し、一審は通常1〜3年を要します。
- 仲裁：韓国商事仲裁院（KCAB）が建設仲裁を管理しており、仲裁判断はニューヨーク条約により170か国以上で執行可能です。
- 調停：国土交通部傘下の建設紛争調整委員会が専門的な調停サービスを提供しており、訴訟より迅速かつ低コストです。
よくある質問（FAQ）
Q1: 外国企業は韓国で建設請負業者として登録できますか？
はい、外国企業は建設産業基本法に基づき韓国で建設請負業者登録を申請できます。ただし、最低資本、技術者、設備の要件を満たす必要があります。多くの外国建設企業は、許可を持つ韓国請負業者との合弁事業を通じて韓国市場に参入することを選択しています。
Q2: 韓国で欠陥クレームを申し立てる典型的なプロセスは？
まず欠陥の性質と場所を明記した書面で請負業者に正式通知し、合理的な期間内（通常30〜60日）に修復を求めます。修復されない場合は独立検査員を起用して欠陥を文書化し、修復費用の見積もりを取得します。その後、建設紛争調整委員会に調停を申請するか、訴訟または仲裁を提起できます。
Q3: 重大災害処罰法は韓国建設への外国投資家にどう影響しますか？
同法は、重大事故が発生した事業場に対して実質的な管理権限を持つ者に適用されます。これには韓国建設現場の運営管理に関与する外国親会社の役員も含まれる可能性があります。
Q4: FIDICコントラクトは韓国で認められ執行可能ですか？
はい、FIDICコントラクトは韓国で認められており、特に大型インフラおよび国際プロジェクトで使用されています。韓国の裁判所は一般的に韓国強制法規に従いつつ、契約条項通りに執行します。
Q5: 請負業者がプロジェクトを放棄した場合、どのような救済手段がありますか？
プロジェクトオーナーは契約を解除して損害賠償を請求したり、履行保証を行使したり、緊急差止命令を申請したり、詐欺的な場合は請負業者の取締役の個人責任を追及したりすることができます。
Q6: 韓国の建設訴訟はどれくらいの期間がかかりますか？
一審は通常1〜3年、専門家証拠が必要な複雑な案件は2〜4年かかります。KCAB仲裁は通常12〜18か月で終了します。
Q7: 韓国では建設紛争について訴訟前に調停が義務付けられていますか？
私的建設契約については通常、強制調停は義務付けられていません。ただし下請法上の一部紛争では、公正取引委員会による行政調停が必要または強く推奨される場合があります。
📌 公式参考資料
📚 関連記事
📋 Perspectiva Legal Coreana | Derecho de Construcción e Inmobiliario
Por la Abogada NOH UJIN | HANBYOL LAW LLC, Seúl
Disputas de Construcción y Responsabilidad de Contratistas en Corea: Guía Legal Completa para Partes Extranjeras
Corea del Sur alberga uno de los mercados de construcción más activos del mundo. Desde grandes proyectos de infraestructura e instalaciones industriales hasta desarrollos inmobiliarios comerciales y complejos residenciales, la actividad constructora coreana es sustancial y continúa creciendo. Para inversores extranjeros, promotores, propietarios de proyectos y contratistas que operan en Corea, comprender el marco legal que rige las disputas de construcción y la responsabilidad de los contratistas es esencial para proteger sus intereses.
Descripción General del Derecho de Construcción Coreano
El derecho de construcción coreano se rige principalmente por la Ley Marco de la Industria de la Construcción y la Ley de Vivienda, complementadas por el Código Civil para los principios generales contractuales y de responsabilidad. La Ley de Arquitectura regula las normas y permisos de construcción, mientras que la Ley de Subcontratación proporciona protecciones importantes en las relaciones de subcontratación.
Tipos de Disputas de Construcción Más Comunes
1. Reclamaciones por Defectos
El Artículo 667 del Código Civil impone una garantía legal sobre los defectos en las obras terminadas. Para edificios residenciales, la Ley de Vivienda extiende este período a 10 años para defectos estructurales.
2. Reclamaciones por Retrasos
Las cláusulas de daños y perjuicios liquidados son habituales en los contratos de construcción coreanos y los tribunales las ejecutan siempre que no constituyan una penalización.
3. Disputas por Órdenes de Cambio
Es frecuente que los propietarios ordenen trabajos adicionales sin emitir órdenes de cambio formales y luego se nieguen a pagar. Los tribunales coreanos han reconocido el enriquecimiento injusto en ciertas circunstancias.
4. Disputas de Pago
La Ley de Subcontratación impone obligaciones estrictas a los contratistas principales para pagar a tiempo a los subcontratistas y prohíbe prácticas de subcontratación injustas.
5. Accidentes de Seguridad y Responsabilidad Penal
La Ley de Castigo por Graves Desastres (enero de 2022) impone responsabilidad penal a propietarios de empresas y altos directivos (incluidos ejecutivos extranjeros) por accidentes laborales mortales donde los sistemas de gestión de seguridad sean inadecuados.
Opciones de Resolución de Disputas
- Litigación: Los tribunales coreanos tramitan un gran volumen de disputas de construcción; los procedimientos de primera instancia suelen tardar de 1 a 3 años.
- Arbitraje: El KCAB administra arbitrajes de construcción y los laudos son ejecutables en más de 170 países bajo la Convención de Nueva York.
- Mediación: El Comité de Mediación de Disputas de Construcción del MOLIT ofrece un servicio especializado que es más rápido y económico que el litigio.
Preguntas Frecuentes (FAQ)
P1: ¿Puede una empresa extranjera ser contratista de construcción registrado en Corea?
Sí, pero debe cumplir los requisitos mínimos de capital, personal técnico y equipamiento. Muchas empresas de construcción extranjeras prefieren entrar en el mercado coreano mediante empresas conjuntas con contratistas coreanos con licencia.
P2: ¿Cuál es el proceso típico para una reclamación por defectos en Corea?
Primero notifique formalmente por escrito al contratista los defectos y solicite su reparación en un plazo razonable (generalmente 30-60 días). Si no se reparan, encargue un inspector independiente para documentar los defectos y obtener estimaciones de costos. Luego puede acudir al Comité de Mediación o iniciar litigación o arbitraje.
P3: ¿Cómo afecta la Ley de Castigo por Graves Desastres a los inversores extranjeros en construcción coreana?
La ley se aplica a quienes tengan autoridad de gestión sustancial sobre el lugar de trabajo, lo que puede incluir a ejecutivos de empresas matrices extranjeras que ejerzan control operacional sobre obras en Corea.
P4: ¿Son reconocibles y ejecutables los contratos FIDIC en Corea?
Sí, los contratos FIDIC son reconocidos y utilizados en Corea, especialmente en grandes proyectos de infraestructura e internacionales. Los tribunales coreanos los ejecutan según sus términos, sujeto a las disposiciones de derecho imperativo coreano.
P5: ¿Qué recursos hay disponibles si un contratista abandona un proyecto en Corea?
El propietario puede resolver el contrato y reclamar daños, ejecutar garantías de cumplimiento, solicitar medidas cautelares urgentes y, en casos de conducta fraudulenta, perseguir la responsabilidad personal de los directores del contratista.
P6: ¿Cuánto tiempo suelen tardar los litigios de construcción en los tribunales coreanos?
Los procedimientos de primera instancia suelen tardar entre 12 y 24 meses para casos simples y de 2 a 4 años para disputas complejas. El arbitraje KCAB normalmente concluye en 12-18 meses.
P7: ¿Es obligatoria la mediación antes del litigio en disputas de construcción en Corea?
Generalmente no para contratos privados de construcción. Sin embargo, para ciertas disputas bajo la Ley de Subcontratación, puede requerirse la mediación administrativa ante la Comisión de Comercio Justo. Se recomienda incluir cláusulas de resolución de disputas escalonadas en los contratos.
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